The Role of the Eastern States in the Dismantling of the SeleuciaEmpire and Its Fall (250-126 BC)

: This study aims to highlight the role of the eastern states - India - Iran – the Arab Gulf in the fall of the Seleucid rule. The weak Seleucid policy in the East led them to lose their influence in it. These states were given a political role similar to self-ruling. This was accompanied by the fact that these states had a civilized dimension to which they were revered, which enabled the two most prominent kingdoms in them to secede from them. The study has adopted the descriptive historical method of the events and linked them to each other, and then analyzed them to reach the desired results. This study has been divided into an introduction and sections, the first of which is the leaders’ conferences, then the establishment of the Seleucid Empire, and the third is the relations of the eastern states with the empire; While the fourth section deals with the struggles over the throne and the fall of the state, then the conclusion of the study and its most prominent results, including: A-Seleucid ambitions broad compared to the Ptolemies, which kept their state away from conflicts and did not fall until more than 30 years after the end of the Seleucid Empire. B-Disputes between the heirs of the throne in which the expansion of the empire was one of its most prominent causes and consequences at the same time for the fall. C-There was the multiplicity of political forces that the Seleucids had to confront, especially the Romans, who defeated the Seleucids in the Battle of Magnesia, and the losses that the Apamea Treaty led to losses that could not be overcome.


Introduction:
of Alexander the Great clashed in competitive wars between them that ended in peace conferences, the most prominent of which was the General Conference of Triparadisus (321 BC), in which the leaders shared his legacy among them.Ptolemy also belonged to his empire as the most important of the two Hellenistic kingdoms in the general east (311 BC), but Seleucus' ambitions led him to conflict with the rest of the leaders, considering himself the legitimate heir of Alexander to control more regions.Seleucus worked to divide it into seventy-two states, each with its own administrative system (1) and this was not his only mistake, as he planted the seed of separation by dividing it into two wings, the eastern center of which is Babylon, and the western center of Antioch , which is the land that later led to the disintegration of his empire from the east, and then its fall; The soft fist policy adopted by the Seleucids, specifically in the eastern provinces, and based on the previous Achaemenid regime, which is the satrapy system and similar to self-governing, contributed to the rejection of those regions dependent on the Seleucids, as in India. (2)helped her break up; While the Parthians sought to restore the glories of their Achaemenid ancestors, especially in light of the Seleucids dealing with some Iranian aristocratic families by giving them freedom in managing their affairs, the Seleucids focused their efforts on the western flank in enabling these states to separate from the empire, and even wrest the eastern provinces from them from Before the Parthians in the year 125 BC, and even the attempt to expel them from their western capital, Antioch.
The Hellenistic presence in the East has received a lot of studies that varied in their topics, and we will mention some of them: 1-A study entitled-Empire Between Orientalism and Hellenocentrism -The Seleucid the History of Iran in the Third and Second Centuries BC\by Rolf -Strootman.Iran University Prees, 2011.1-The study dealt with the political organization conflict contributed to the inability to stop the Parthian expansion, especially by the Frataraka rulers, who had been a ruling dynasty since the swAchaemenid era, and how the gradual transition occurred since the middle of the third century of the Seleucid existence from military control to acceptance of the system Dependent kingdoms, to which the Seleucids were willing to recognize their autonomy in return for their tribute.2-"Greek Kingdome of Bactria and its Coinages and its Collapse-" by: Joe Cribb, Ancient Carrefour Entre, I᾽ est et I᾽ oust, Brepols, 2005, Acadimie The study dealt with the Greek Kingdom of Bactria and its control over other eastern provinces, perhaps the most prominent of which is Afghanistan, where it left a lot of evidence, the most important of which are coins in several cities, including Bagram and Khanum, which was described The research problem appears in several aspects, including: 1-How did the Seleucid state manage its eastern and western states, and why did the Seleucids not implement the policy of completely subordinating the eastern states to the Seleucid influence.Was their attempt to impose Greek culture acceptable in the eastern states?2-Did the expansion of the state contribute to the inability to preserve its entity, which led to conflicts over the throne and the intervention of other parties to appoint kings from outside the Seleucid family, which led to its disintegration in the East before its fall?3-Did intermarriage with the ruling families in the eastern states contribute to supporting the stability of the state, or was it a reason for its separation? 4 -Was the beginning of the disintegration of the state since the era of the founder A.M. during the reign of Antiochus III, who was defeated in Magnesia, and the results it resulted in, perhaps the most important of which were the terms of the Treaty of Apamea? 5 Why did the Seleucid state not eliminate the rebellions in the eastern states in its infancy rather than relent in it?
The research aims to identify the reasons for the disintegration of the Seleucid Empire in its eastern flank before its fall, and how the policy of the soft fist opened the way for those seeking to recover previous glories, especially in Iran, to gain independence from it?And the weakness of her grip in it after that?
The importance of the research appears in that it constitutes a tributary of the study of the Greek presence in the East, and it examines an important aspect of the fall of a major empire that lasted for decades and left its impact on the region from multiple aspects?And how the Seleucid policy in the East, despite the loss of its eastern possessions, has a positive aspect represented in the preservation of those regions on their identity and local traditions.
The research relied on the historical method of reviewing the events, analyzing them to reach the expected results, and based its plan on dividing it into several sections according to the nature of the research subject as follows: A-Alexander's campaigns in the East in brief, in order to make it clear that the Seleucid policy was almost identical to it.B -The conferences of the Macedonian leaders and what resulted in the division of the East between them, especially the Seleucid and Ptolemaic empires.C -The establishment of the Seleucid Empire by Seleucus I, its administrative system and its military actions in order to build a wide empire.D -The relations of the Seleucid Empire with the eastern powers starting with India, then Bactria and finally Parthia, and the revolution of the Greek leader Molon connected to the east through his brother Alexander in Iran, and although Antiochus managed to suppress it, and reorganize the state of the Persian Gulf, it was a clear sign of the threat to the cohesion of the empire.The first stage of its disintegration.E -Family disputes over the throne and the end of the state.

The Era of Alexander the Macedonian
Alexander III -the Great ascended the throne of Macedonia in the year (336 BC) at the age of twenty after the murder of his father King Philip.He received knowledge from the famous philosopher Aristotle, and his father also participated in the Battle of Chaeronea against the Greek League, and to prove his strength and ability to run the country, he put down the revolution of the Greek city of Teyba and killed many of its people and flatten it with the land to be as an example to the rest of the Greek cities, (1) then he decided to go out to the east to take revenge on the Persians -the Achaemenids -, and to fulfill his dream of becoming emperor of the world In the year (334 BC) Alexander left Greece heading to the east, accompanied by the historian Callisthenese-and a number of Macedonian officers at the head of a land army and a naval fleet, in addition to many scientists and engineers in land roads and waterways, and the first confrontation was with the Achaemenid Persians in Asia Minor at the Granicus River, which witnessed their first victory over them (2) .
After Alexander's victory over King Dara III in the battle of Gogamilla in the year (334 BC), Alexander descended to Babylon, then headed east to the Achaemenid capital Susa, then to Persopolis -Istakhr -and in the year (330 BC) he went to Ecbatana (3) .Then Hyrcania -southeast of the Caspian -Hyrcania and then he continued his way after the killing of Dara by the governor of Bactria until he reached Areia in the year (327 BC), and there he married to Roxana, the daughter of the ruler of Bactria after his capture (4) and he aimed from behind that to obtain the plotical support from the loyals to her father, as he appointed the widow of Darius Idriens -ruler of her husband's property in Caria (5) .
Alexander continued his way as far as Kandahar in the province of Arachosia, then continued it north to the Oxus River and the Paropamisus mountains of the Hindu Kush in northern Afghanistan, then headed north to Marakand, Samarkand, where he remained for two years in the Sogdiana region, which is called in the Presen Uzbekistan.Then Alexander headed to Kabul then to India, and did not find any resistance until he crossed the Indus River-where he collided with the Indian king Poros in the east of Hydasis, and the battle ended with his victory in the year (326 BC), but he kept him on his throne to rule his kingdom due to his admiration for him.Alexander continued to control the areas one after the other until he reached the Hyphasis River, where his soldiers rebelled and decided to return to their country after an absence that lasted for about eight years.Alexander acquiesced to the desire of his soldiers, as the Hephases River became the last area that Alexander reached, and then ordered the construction of ships and a return to Babylon (1) Then he died in (323 BC) (2) .

Babylon Conference: (323 BC).
After his death, Alexander's leaders faced the issue of inheriting the throne, as he did not appoint or specify a heir to him, and his brother Arrhidaeus, (3) who had epilepsy, was one of the candidates to succeed him; while his wife, Roxana, was pregnant and had not given birth yet; In addition to his son Heracles, from his mistress, Barsine, daughter of the leader Memnon, and he was eight years old when his father died, (4) and it was agreed in principle based on the suggestion of Eumenes, Alexander's secretary, who found it acceptable to everyone to take over Arrhidaeus the throne as heir in the name of King Philip, and shared with him the son of Roxana if he was a male, with the appointment of Perdicas -whom Alexander gave him while waiting for his personal seal to stamp the royal orders (5) as a regent for the throne.Perdicas took Babylon as his headquarters; while the states of the empire were divided among the senior leaders -to administer it and not to own it -and later Roxana gave birth to her child to share the rule with Arrhidaeus (6) and the conference ended with the following agreements: a -Antipater will take over the supervision of Macedonia and Greece, and Kraitus will take over the protection of King Philip Arrhidaeus -and appoint Perdiccas regent of the palace and oversee the entire empire.b-Ptolemy will take over the administration of Egypt, and Lamidon will take over Syria.c-Antigonus will be ruler of all western Asia Minor, including Phrygia and Cilicia.d-Lysimachus will take over Thrace after its separation from Macedonia, and Archon will be the commander of Babylon.e -Bioxtas will take over Persia as he had been governor of it since the days of Alexander (7) g -Atropatees will take over North Media, who is the founder of the Atropatees (8) Thus, Alexander's empire was divided into (24) states or satraps, each of which was ruled by one of Alexander's leaders, and the goal was to manage and maintain his empire at the beginning, before the leaders fought in several battles during a period of time that ended with the division of the empire into three Hellenistic kingdoms.
Ptolemy raised the suspicions of the rest of the leaders when he got rid of Cleomenes the Nocrates, whom Alexander appointed as supervisor of financial affairs, and executed him, claiming that he had received complaints from the people against the financial measures he had set, and he worked to support his position in Egypt and secure its borders, so he annexed the settlement of Koreini -located on the western borders of Egypt in the year (322 BC).This angered Perdiccas, who sought to marry Alexander's sister Cleopatra, and the rest of the leaders did not object to these measures taken by Ptolemy because they were afraid of what Perdiccas had done as he went on a campaign heading to Egypt, and because he was hated by his soldiers, they revolted against him and killed him (1) .

Triparadisos Conference (321 BC)
Two years after the Babylon conference, Alexander's commanders held another conference in Triparadisos in Syria in the year (321 BC) (2) after the leaders allied against Perdiccas when he wanted to control the entire empire of Alexander, and the empire became, according to the new division, ( 22) states, ten of them had their governors changed from what was the situation in the Babylon conference as a natural result of the expulsion of the supporters of Perdiccas from the previous governors, (3) but Perdiccas soon showed his intentions to control the affairs of the empire, so he put the other two kings under his influence, then the conflict erupted again and was marked by the emergence of three currents: The first of them was intended to preserve the unity of the empire under the rule of the house from which Alexander descended, represented by King Philip III, the half-brother of Alexander, and the son of Alexander named Alexander IV.Among these were Perdiccas, Eumenes, Polperchon and the last two were regents of the throne; As for the second trend, it was led by Antigonus and his son Demetrius, and they aimed to preserve the unity of the empire, but under the leadership of the House of Antigonus; As for the third trend, it sees the division of the empire into several kingdoms that sit on the throne of each one of them, including Seleucus, who will later become king of Syria and Mesopotamia, and Ptolemy bin Lagos, who will establish the Ptolemaic state, and this conflict took three stages from the years (321-316 BC), the second (316-306 BC) and the third (306-301 BC) (4) The Triparadisus Conference witnessed the re-division of the states, including: the Mandate of Babylon, which was granted to Seleucus in addition to several states, thus equaling with his peers from the leaders, and even surpassing them by obtaining this important mandate, which illustrates the great role he played in the years that followed the Babylon conference, which was assumed by the year (321 BC) where Docimos, who was sent by Perdiccas as a substitute for Archon, was isolated, which enabled him to impose full control over it (5) and was adjacent to Seleucus, the strong leader Peithon -Governor of Media, and the other leader Peucestus, preferring not to participate in their conflicts so that he could form his state in Babylon (6)  His state was threatened, like the rest of the kings -leaders -by Antigonus -who considered himself the true heir to Alexander's empire, so he worked to stir up disturbances in the possessions of his rivals, so he sent his son Demetrius to occupy the island of Cyprus, which belonged to the Ptolemies, after he inflicted a heavy defeat on the Ptolemaic fleet in the year (306 BC) that damaged the power of the Ptolemies and their sovereignty over the Mediterranean and the Aegean Sea, and this victory resonated even in The Greek world, where its cities sided with Antigonus, who worked to reap the fruits of that by taking with his son the title of king (1) especially after getting rid of the legitimate heirs to the Macedonian throne, and so Ptolemy declared himself king of Egypt in the year (305 BC), then each of Seleucus, Lusimachus and Cassandros among them were kings in his possessions, and they issued coins with their names and pictures instead of the image of Alexander, after they gave up the title of governor -Satrapesand carried the title of King -Basilecus, and thus the relations between them became competitive as each of them sought to achieve his ambitions, and the conflicts between the leaders resulted the emergence of three major kingdoms: the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt and the interior of Syriatemporarily-, Cyprus and some islands of the Cyclades, the Seleucid kingdom in Persia, Media Bactria, Babylon, and the Macedonian kingdom in Macedonia led by Lusimachus (2) .
The year (303 BC) witnessed the leaders' return again to the alliance against Antigonus, where they inflicted a crushing defeat to him in the battle of Ipsos (301 BC) (3) known as the "Battle of the Kings", and the withdrawal of Ptolemy from the alliance based on a false rumor of the death of Antigonus, which had the greatest impact to him and to the Ptolemies and Seleucids throughout the history of their kingdoms (4) at a time when Seleucus had managed to subjugate the eastern states to his authority and then joined the allies against Antigonus after the latter tried to enter Babylon to separate Seleucus from his allies.This battle left its dangerous effects on these kingdoms, their relations and their continuation after that; Antigonus' rule was ended, and his possessions divided among the victors; Asia Minor fell into the hands of Lysimachus, and Seleucus annexed Syria and northern Mesopotamia, and Cassandros declared himself king of Macedonia and was not punished for his crime of assassinating the true guardians of the throne, which indicates their acceptance of this crime that would enable them to establish their independent kingdoms that were parts of Alexander's empire, and this war ended the possibility of reviving Alexander's empire again after the emergence of three Hellenistic kingdoms: Seleucid, Ptolemaic, Macedonian, which passed to the descendants of Antigonus after lost by descendants of Antipatros (1) Later, the sons of these leaders completed the wars of their fathers in the stage known as the war of the sons of the caliphs -Epigoni -and this stage ended with the battle of Corbidon -Kouropedion in the year (280 BC) in favor of Seleucus, the only leader left of them, where the system took its final form, but the point of contention between the two largest Hellenistic kingdoms In the east was the interior of Syria, which Seleucus seized (312 BC) after his victory with his allies in the battle of Ipsos (2) and it became an area of conflict between the two allies and then the two enemies in a series of wars known as the Great Syrian Wars, which weakened them and allowed Rome to intervene between them and then devour it later, respectively.

Seleucus -Nicator I and the Establishment of the Dynasty and the Seleucid State (321-316 BC).
The results of the Battle of Ipsos contributed to the final division of the empire; Babylon became the share of Seleucus I (312-280 BC), who killed Perdiccas and was rewarded for taking over its affairs (3) and his lineage goes back to one of the noble Macedonian families.He was about the same age of Alexander and enjoyed a distinguished position with him and his father before him (4) According to Arrian, "Seleucus was the most Macedonian leader looks like Alexander" (5) and he accompanied him to the east and served him faithfully in all the campaigns he undertook, and this enabled him to promote him to the rank of supreme command in the year (326 BC), and assigned him a number of important positions in the army, including the position of commander of the cavalry made up of noble Persian and Macedonian, whom Alexander worked to mix in the city of Susa, which he later learned, but the great and prominent role of Seleucus on Alexander's life was in his campaign against India, as he was entrusted with a number of leaders to lead the infantry battalion in his war with the Indian King Porus, which enabled Alexander to achieve his victories there.He married to the eastern princess, Apama, who was from the Bactrian dynasty, from which he had his sons who inherited the throne of the state, and she was a favorite of him, so he gave her name to a number of the cities that he established (6) .
Antigonus managed to assassinate Biocastas in Persia and set one of his men on it, which threatened Seleucus directly, forcing him to go to Egypt at Ptolemy I, inciting him against Antigonus, who refused the demands of the leaders.Seleucus cooperated with Ptolemy, where he took command of the latter's fleet, and achieved several victories over the garrisons of Antigonus in Caria (7) , and the battle of Gaza took place between the two sides (313-312 BC), in which Ptolemy defeated Demetrius, son of Antigonus, after his success in occupying Syria and was on the outskirts of Egypt before the defeat forced him to recourse to his father, and the battle witnessed close cooperation between the two leaders which contributed to the liberation of Syria from the influence of Antigonus, and Demetrius was forced to return to his father, leaving his army in the hands of his enemies, (1) especially after the killing of the ruler of Babylon, Pythion who was appointed by Antigonus in the battle of Gaza, (2) and this battle had the greatest impact on Seleucus, as it gave him the power to restore his possessions which he had and was expelled from it, where Ptolemy supported him with a military force, and he headed to Babylon after the end of the battle.On his way, he entered the city of Carrhae, Harran, and a number of Macedonians joined him.Then he crawled to Babylon, where the inhabitants who hated Antigonus welcomed him, and called him king upon his arrival.He worked to liberate his followers who had been in captivity for more than four years.
The general history of the Seleucid state (312 BC), which is the date that was adopted in Syria; while the first of April of the year (311 BC) was adopted as the date for the establishment of the state in Babylon (3) .Seleucus was keen to prepare a strong army in anticipation of a response from Antigonus, who appointed Nicanor -governor of the eastern states, and governor of the region of Media, and directed him with a large army to Babylon to eliminate Seleucus, who defeated him despite the inequality of the two forces, forcing Nicanor to flee and this victory led to the acceptance of Seleucus as a crowned king in Mesopotamia and the surrounding areas (4) .
Seleucus took advantage of his victory over Nicanor, He was then able to annex Susa and then Persia, whose ruler was killed in the battle with Nicanor and then headed to Media and annexed it, (5) which prompted Antigonus to postpone his campaign on Egypt in order to recover the eastern states from Seleucus, where he prepared a campaign led by his son Demetrius, who went to Babylon; While Seleucus was in Media, Demetrius entered Babylon and did not find anyone in it, as it was evacuated by the departure of its governor and those with him into the desert because of his inability to confront Demetrius.He besieged the two royal palaces and looted one of them, and he did not complete his victories because his father summoned him, and left it after leaving one of his friends behind.Seleucus returned to Babylon after the departure of Demetrius from it (311 BC) and worked to restore his rule in it again.To achieve this, he sought to consolidate his influence in the eastern states, which caused Antigonus against him.So, he sent his son Demetrius to him again with a large army that was able to achieve some victories, but they were not decisive, forcing him to make peace with Seleucus (307 BC), but Antigonus attacked Babylon again in the year (303 BC) and did not succeed, then he repeated his attack and destroyed it as Seleucus reconstructed it again (6) .
(1(- In the wake of the stabilization of the situation and the victories after the battle of Gaza, Seleucus decided to take a new capital, Antioch, as an alternative to him for the old capital Antioch, which he refused to adopt because its founder is his former opponent, and the new capital established on the Orontes River allowed him to supervise the property of the western state, and to move east and west in the lands of his vast kingdom, (1) but it kept him away from the eastern states, whose people took advantage of that to separate from the state.The years (311-302 BC) witnessed Seleucus' efforts to establish the rules of his government, and to eliminate opposition against him, as he established a number of cities, including: Apamea, which it was the main camp of the Seleucid kingdom in northern Syria, and Latakia -the second important seaport in the north, where its trade reached Egypt, and the city of Dura-Europus, while Seleucia-Tigris was built on an ancient site inhabited since the ancient Babylonian era, which is the site of Obis, according to the plan of the Greek cities, as the aim of Seleucus from its foundation was to be a center at the confluence of the most important trade routes in Asia, (2) where the Tigris River provides a better possibility of Euphrates River to reach the Arabian Gulf and from there to India, as it can be considered a major center for trade with the west; In addition to the construction of other cities such as: Chalkis, Larissa, Arethusa on the coasts of the Arabian Gulf, and in the north of Iran the cities of Alexandria, Sihon, Antioch in Scodia were built (3) .
Seleucus also imposed his influence on northern Syria, the land of the Euphrates Island in the year (301 BC) and Cilicia in the year (296 BC) and then Asia Minor, except for the national kingdoms in it, such as: the Kingdom of Pontus in the year (281 BC) and thus established a wide empire extending from the Aegean and the Mediterranean from west to Afghanistan in the east, and the Seleucid Empire had three separate vital centers: Ionia and its capital Sardis -Asia Minor -, Northern Syria with its capital Antioch, and Babylon with its capital Seleucia Tigris, while the coast was in the hands of the Greek cities, and the major Phoenician cities (4) .
Seleucus ruled a wide area that only Alexander ruled similar area for it, with his ambitions in Macedonia and the Greek lands, and he found a favorable opportunity when Lysandra, the widow of the Macedonian crown prince, Agathocles, son of Lusimachus, used him to complain about the murder of her husband, Seleucus took it as advantage who hated Simachus, where the two sides collided in the Battle of Corpidon-Korupedion-General (281 BC) (5) and he killed Lusimachus.Seleucus found himself more deserving of the throne of Macedonia, but Ptolemy -the thunderbolt -Keraunas -the brother of the King of Egypt, who was accompanying him, found himself worthy of the throne of Macedonia beside Egypt besides Egypt, so he planned to assassinate Seleucus, and waited for the opportunity, and this happened to him when the latter decided to rest in one of the ancient massacres, with only a few with him, including the thunderbolt who killed him treacherously.With his death, the era of Alexander's successors ended, and the age of their sons came.The Macedonian army soldiers considered him a hero and proclaimed him as king of Macedonia (1) The ruler of Pergamo, Phileteaeros (2) ransomed the corpse of Seleucus and sent it to his son Antiochus I in Babylon, who buried it in Seleucia Beria -the Orontes, which he founded Seleucus in the year (300 BC) on the northern Syrian coast and it became the most important port in, and it was a burial site for the Seleucid dynasty, ending the dream of re-establishing the first Hellenistic empire in the east, where he founded many cities with keenness to spread the manifestations of Greek civilization (3) .Antiochus I (281-260 BC) took the throne, and was preparing to take revenge on his father's killer, relying on the support of some eastern states for him, especially by the emergence of many discontented with Ptolemy Thunderbolt after his betrayal of Seleucus, in addition to his role in inciting a number of Syrian cities to revolts against Antiochus, who He managed to put it down, and the Macedonians used him to respond to the danger and threats of the Celtic tribes -Gaul -who attacked the borders of North Macedonia, and caused the killing of Ptolemy in a confrontation with them, and Antiochus did not succeed in defeating them, so he made peace with them for fear of the Ptolemaic threat to his possessions, (4) as he allied with Antigonus II, the son of Demetrius, and together they were able to expel the Celtic tribes from Asia Minor, and the first declared himself king of Macedonia in the year (277 BC), and thus the situation in the territories of Alexander's empire returned to stability again in the major kingdoms: the Seleucid kingdom, headed by King Antiochus I, Macedonia And Asia Minor, headed by King Antigonus, who bore the name Gonatas -as for Egypt, it belonged to King Ptolemy Philadelphus (5) .

Administrative System:
The Seleucids followed Alexander's policy for organizing the empire; So they kept the large Persian satrapies, but they divided the states beyond the Euphrates into three sections: the Ibarakh Satrapies, and the Hipararchies (Deskra) (6) and thus their division was disjointed compared to the Ptolemaic states (the central region and the village) and the Hipararchies were divided into isthimatums, a system that the Seleucids took from the Persians as  Each Seleucid archdiocese kept its own system and under the administration of a ruler who follows the leader of the satrap, and with him and his staff, known as -Basielion -and Hespausines of Mycenae, one of the rulers of the eparchies, was able to transform his eparchia into an independent kingdomthe Kingdom of Mecene-, and other new administrative divisions were established, and in the first century BC the lands of Asia Minor and beyond the Euphrates became major primary divisions, and an eparchia became equivalent to the Provincia, and each satrapy had a military leader -Strategos, and a satrap (3) and each province in turn was divided into subsections, each headed by another governor for financial affairs, a garrison commander, and a high priest.Each province has an administrative center with a number of employees to manage its affairs, and these provinces have great autonomy with wide powers to conduct their affairs according to their own traditions (4) The Seleucids outperformed the Ptolemies in establishing cities in the regions they ruled.The Seleucid army consisted of cavalry and infantry, especially the Macedonian and Greek cavalry, and the Median divisions formed an important part of its composition, and here was the danger, as this contributed to the state's loss of its possessions, especially in the east, and the king was in command of the army.As for the Seleucid fleet, it was divided into a fleet residing in Asia The smaller one, and the other in the Arabian Gulf and had a clear role in supporting the land armies (5) and confronting the Parthian fleet The policy of dividing the major states was a disaster for the unity of the state.Seleucus worked in the period (299-287 BC) to rearrange his vast empire; He divided it into (72) states governed by Greek or Macedonian officials, and the local population had no role in that, and he made in each state a permanent army of the local population under Macedonian or Greek leadership, with the imposition of Greek culture and identity on, such as naming cities with Greek names, and establishing many cities Including ( 16) in the name of Antioch, (9) in the name of Seleucia, (6) of Laodicea, (3) of Apamea, and in the year (292 BC), he divided his empire into two parts, western under his administration and eastern under the administration of his son Antiochus I, and its capital, Seleucia, the Tigris, an independent king over it (1) It is this division that sowed the seed of the separation of the states of the Seleucid Empire, especially the eastern ones, because this gave the impression of the existence of two kings of one state whose prestige and influence are linked to the same king.

Indian Seleucid Relations:
The Hephasis River was the last area that Alexander reached in his campaign against India, and he stopped there because his Macedonian soldiers refused to continue their progress.This contributed to the establishment of an Indian kingdom across the river that was ruled by the Nanda dynasty, which imposed its control over those areas, and was not confronted by Alexander, who met Chandragupta, a member of the Nanda family, who failed to conspire against his master, trying to persuade him to invade India, but the objection of his soldiers hindered him from imposing his influence there, so he left his deputies to their areas in India, and after Alexander was killed, his commanders disputed over his possessions.Chandragupta took advantage of the opportunity and worked to unite the provinces of northern India in the year (321 BC), where he established his empire with the support of the Indian king Porus of the Macedonians.The first was able to expel the Macedonian garrisons from the Punjab, then entered the capital of the kingdom of Magadha -Pataliputra -deposing King Nanda and establishing the Mauyra royal dynasty in it (2) .
As for the beginning of relations between the Seleucids and India, it followed the signing of the peace treaty between Antigonus and Seleucus in Babylon in the year 307 BC, when Seleucus headed to the eastern states, resolving to return them to Seleucid sovereignty, especially India, in which the situation changed a lot, he crossed with his army the Indus River(305 BC) and met Chandragupta in the year (303 BC) trying to restore Punjab and subjugate the other Indian states, but he failed in front of Chandragupta who forced him to conclude a peace treaty that stipulated a number of items, including: a-Seleucus' recognition of Chandragupta as king of India, and the renunciation of Punjab and other regions such as Kandahar, Archus, and Gedrosia, with Bactria remaining under Seleucid rule (3) .b -Seleucus obtained (500) Indian elephants trained in war, which had an active role in achieving victory in his wars, especially against Antigonus in Ipsos in the year (301 BC).c-The treaty did not neglect the trade relations between the two sides, as the Indian and Seleucid lands became open to both sides, so trade was flourished, and Seleucus and his successors secured their need for elephants, which became the main weapon in the battles of the Seleucids; In addition to the flow of Indian commercial goods to the Seleucids, including ivory, spices, and some Chinese products, this treaty was supported by a royal affinity between the Indian king and a Greek princess who some see as the daughter of Seleucus, or a member of his family, and Seleucus presented in the year (288 BC) donations to the temple of Apollo in Didyoma, India, included ten talents of myrrh and Indian cinnamon (1) .Seleucus did not return to India after that, but he focused his efforts on the western states.Seleucid and Indian relations continued peacefully for a long time even after Chandragupta's death; The Seleucid kings sent ambassadors to his capital and settled there, especially the ambassador Megasthenes, who was sent by Seleucus in the year (301 BC).Indian ambassadors were also sent to the Seleucid court with the aim of supporting cultural exchanges between the two sides.In the year (298 BC) Chandra Gupta died, and he was succeeded by his son, Bindusara, who worked to consolidate his relations with the Greeks, especially the Seleucids, while preserving the unity of his country.During his reign, a new Seleucid ambassador, Demachos, arrived to his capital.Relations continued during the reign of Antiochus I and King Bindosar, and later Asuka took over -Asoka -ruling after his father in the year (274 BC), and he converted to Buddhism and made it the official creed of the state, and supported his relations with the Seleucid state by sending ambassadors who played the role of missionaries in Buddhism in the Seleucid state, and he subjected part of the eastern provinces to his authority, where trade between the two sides flourished better than before, trade missions were exchanged, and thus the policy of Seleucus I contributed to the consolidation and stability of the important eastern states to obtain the elephants, horses and men needed for the armies, and activating trade between the two sides in the light of the great importance of those regions, especially India (2) .Antiochus I (280-261 BC) cared of maintaining the unity of the state, but the reign of his heir Antiochus II (261-247 BC) witnessed the first beginnings of the states' separation from the state.Antiochus, I followed his father's approach in taking care of the eastern states, especially that his mother was Persian.He also sought to establish Greek cities in the east, so he built about (32) Greek cities around the Arabian Gulf, and the eastern regions such as Bactria, Sogdiana, and Media.The aim behind this was to protect vital trade routes, and to repel the attacks of mountain tribe )3( with interest in the city of Babylon for being the first capital of the state and the capital of Alexander, in addition to his desire to win the sympathy and support of the people of Babylon for the Seleucid ruleand the other capital (4( Seleucia Tigris grew and expanded in his reign became one of the most important eastern cities, and he worked to support his country's relations with the Indian King Bindosar, and exchanged ambassadors with himand (1( ، the covenants of his followers did not witness any campaigns against India. Antiochus III (223-187 BC) headed to India, following the footsteps of Alexander, crossing the Hindu Kush Mountains to reach the Indus River.King Asoka, the grandson of Chandergupta, had died and the country was in turmoil due to family disputes over power.One of the most prominent candidates was the leader Sophagasenos.Antiochus took advantage of this conflict by supporting him, granting him absolute powers, and installing him in exchange for providing Antiochus' army with a number of elephants and a large sum of money was collected by the commander Androsthenes, along with the recognition of the sovereignty of the Seleucids by the Indian king (2) .
Antiochus returned to Seleucia Tigris in the year (206-205 BC) and used for himself the title of the Greatest King.He also sought to obtain the loyalty of the tribes that were practicing trade with India, especially the southern parts, as the land route for Indian trade was under the control of the Kingdom of Gerrha -the important station on that road, which has extensive commercial relations with Petra, Dilmun, Babylon, and southern Syria, where its people presented the king with gifts in return for maintaining the stability and peace they enjoyed (3) and by subjugating Al Jahra, the Ptolemaic trade is struck by preventing the arrival of Indian goods through it to the lands belonging to the Ptolemies in Syria, then to Egypt.Seleucus I had established a number of cities and settlements along the lower part of the Tigris River, and the eastern coasts of the Arabian Peninsula amounted to about nine cities.He also established a permanent fleet in the Arabian Gulf (4) His victories in the eastern states contributed to restoring the prestige of the state and its unity in front of its enemies, and then he returned to liberate the interior of Syria from the Ptolemies, after his defeat in the Battle of Rafah, which took place between him and King Ptolemy IV Philopate in the year (317 BC) (5) taking advantage of the disputes between the guardians the Ptolemaic throne, but he was collided with the intervention of Rome at the request of the Ptolemaic throne, so, in the year (199 BC) he headed to Asia Minor to help his ally Philip the Macedonian in his war against Bergamo.He received a letter from Rome asking him to take into account the interests of its pragmatic ally (6) , and this letter was the first form of Roman intervention in the affairs of the eastern Hellenistic kingdoms, and to To neutralize the Seleucid influence in the West.
The Seleucid-Indian relations continued to exist, especially at the economic level, as the celebrations of King Antiochus IV (175-164 BC) in his burial witnessed a presentation of Indian products, including cinnamon, ivory, and elephants.These relations did not stop despite the separation of the eastern states (Bactria and Parthia) that separated the lands of the two sides, and despite the Parthian occupation of Babylon and Mesopotamia during the second century BC, when Indian products reached the rest of the Seleucid lands to the west (1) .

The Secession of the Eastern States:
The reign of King Antiochus II witnessed the separation of the eastern states of Persia and Bactria from the Seleucid state under the rule of Persian and Greek dynasties for several reasons, perhaps the most important of which are: the concentration of the Seleucids for their efforts on the western regions due to their connection with the Syrian wars with the Ptolemies, the expansion of the state's area, and the presence of more than one capital such as Babylon and Seleucia Tigris , and Antioch, their policy with the eastern states based on granting their leaders autonomy and not subordination, the dispersal of political and military efforts on more than one front, in addition to the taxes imposed by the kings on their eastern subjects, which aroused their resentment and rebellion against the Seleucid rule, and to get rid of those burdens that were imposed on them as their commitment to Greek culture was another reason for the separation of the eastern states from the state, and their complete independence from it.

1-Secession of Bacteria
Bactria ( 2) is one of the important eastern states that received great attention from the Seleucids, due to its active role in eastern trade, as well as its location on the trade route that linked India to the Persian lands heading to Mesopotamia and then Syria, and because of the difficulties experienced by the Seleucid kingdom during the reign of Antiochus II, Diodotos, who was the commander of the Seleucid forces in Bactria, announced his separation from the state in the year (256-255 BC), and some believe that he was collaborating with the Ptolemaic King Ptolemy III, who incited him to take this step after the Seleucids lost the third Syrian war (3) .The Maueria dynasty fell at the hands of this Greek leader, who crossed the Hindu Kush generations and conquered the Punjab in wars that lasted for about sixteen years (183-168 BC), and he managed to keep this kingdom extending from the valley of the Gihon to the upper Indus basin united under his administration and his heirs, (4) He also maintained contact with the Greek world and continued to exist for approximately 128 years, receiving Greek elements, where the Bactrian army consisted of Greek mercenaries and the local population, (5) and he followed a different method in dealing with the local population and those with them, adopting centralization in governance, unlike what was the case during the rule of Alexander, and the founder Seleucus, which granted the rulers of the Indian kingdoms autonomy, but what distinguished Diodotus was that he did not announce his separation completely, or he was confused regard the crown, but it was his son Diodotus II who declared himself an independent king in the year (227 BC).
Antiochus III went to Bactria, which was under the rule of Eythydimos (1) to restore it to the Seleucid influence; but its king resisted him violently, relying on the strength of his army, especially the cavalry, where the two sides collided, and Antiochus lost in the first confrontation, and was also wounded, but he managed in the following confrontation of the victory over him, his pursuit and besieging his capital for two years without result; which prompted the Bactrian king to offer the peace that was made between the two parties in which he was recognized as king of Bactria, and his son Demetrius married to the daughter of the Seleucid king, and the terms of the peace also included that the king of Bactria will provide Antiochus III with elephants and supplies, and subordination to the Seleucid state, (2) and this peace came due to the desire of the Seleucid king to preserve the existence of this kingdom in order to ward off the danger of the Bedouin tribes, because it represented a protective shield for the Greek settlements from that danger in the eastern parts of the state, but Diodotus II, who succeeded his father, was able to include a number of eastern states after the defeat of the Seleucid armies in the year (189 BC) in front of the Romans in Magnesia, (3) and also controlled part of India, wanting to establish his empire based on the Greek element, especially that his wife was of Seleucia origin, imitating Alexander in that (4) .
After two decades of that defeat, the state recovered during the reign of King Antiochus IV by having an army that could move to restore the independent states.In the year (169 BC) Antiochus IV sent the commander Eucratides -his cousin -to Bactria, where he eliminated its king Demetrius, the rival of the Parthian king Mithradites I, who was able to expand the influence of his state at the expense of the possessions of Bactria, and this was a wrong action by Antiochus because he contributed to the strengthening of the two kingdoms against him, and then the separation from the state later.That campaign contributed to the restoration of Bactria before Yekratidis declared his independence from the Seleucid rule, (5) and the ambitions of the leaders in the eastern states led to the disintegration of the Kingdom of Bactria into several states that were eliminated by the invaders known as the Scythians (6) and theTocharians-from Central Asia (7) .

2-Secession of Parthia
The Parthians (1) are known by many names, including the Ashkanites , and the Arshakis, who are tribes that came from the Caspian Sea, and mixed with the local population (2) , While many sources see their belonging to the Parni tribe, and that tribe belongs to the Asian tribes known as the Scythians, who resided in the region of the steppes between the Caspian and the Aral seas, and they took over the northeastern part known as the Parthave-Khorasan region and mixed with its original inhabitants, founding their kingdom, which was equal to the Seleucids and the Romans, and continued in existence for about (475 years) (250 BC -226 AD) and its first king was known as Arshak.-The sources differed in their number (3) and this may have resulted from the lack of agreement in determining the actual date of the establishment of the state (255-247 BC), and they were known as the kings of the sects, especially in Islamic sources (4) .
The Parthians appeared on the political stage in Iran in the middle of the third century BC, and their leadership was taken over by a leader known as Arsaces -(250-247 BC) who seized Bartho, which was one of the Seleucid states, taking advantage of the state's preoccupation with its many conflicts, especially in its western parts during the rule of King Antiochus II, who was preoccupied with wars in interior of Syria with the Ptolemies and in Asia Minor against more than one part of the Gaul tribes; Which distracted the empire from the tightening of its grip on its states, especially the eastern ones, especially since Seleucus I moved his capital from the city of Seleucia -the Tigris to Antioch -the Orontes -which means that he moved the center of political gravity for his state from the east to the west, in order to be close to the region of competition with the Ptolemies in interior of Syria-This was reflected negatively on the stability of the state, especially in its eastern provinces, which represent the economic and moral importance of the state.From Babylon, the state was established; the establishment of Diodotus of Bactria for his Parthian state tempted the Parthians to announce the establishment of an independent state for them as well, especially in the light of their hatred of the Greek civilization and the attempt to impose it on them.He was a leader of the Seleucids in Balkh, then announced his separation from them, so he went to Tabaristan and gathered his people, and revolted against the Seleucid king Antiochus II, so he sent an army to him and then marched to confront him, but he was defeated and killed in the last battle between the two sides.After that, Arshaq declared his independence from the Seleucids, and the state was unable to confront him, especially after the Bactrians joined him, and he defeated Antiochus II, and expelled the Seleucids from Persia and Media (1) and even took control of Hyrcania, (2) thus enabling the Parthians to form a strong independent kingdom that included a large part of the Achaemenids lands, (3) to emerge an Iranian state after about (150 years) from the elimination of the last state -the Achaemenids -at the hands of the Greeks.
The year (247 BC) represents the beginning of the Parthian era in Iran, and for its importance as a strategic dimension to Mesopotamia country, the Seleucids tried to restore it to their influence, unlike their dealings with the Indian political forces despite the importance of their country.Wars continued between the two sides, and the balance was always in favor of the Parthians, as an emerging power, compared to the Seleucids, who exhausted their forces in their long wars with the Ptolemies, and other political forces.
The Parthians initially took the city of Damjan (4) as their capital, before turning to Ctesiphon -Ctesiphon -later.
The Parthians adopted the policy of independent states in Mesopotamia and not in Iran, where it was the beginnings of the emergence of the state, and perhaps this was their desire to preserve the unity of their original country under their control, while their division of Mesopotamia into independent states so as not to revolt against them; Mesopotamia was divided into states and small kingdoms in the north and south, of which two kingdoms in the north are: Hatra in the northern Mesopotamia -Tikrit -and Hadiab -which was in Mosul and its base is Erbil.The satrap Homerius, who was ruler of Babylon by the Parthian king Farhad II (137-128 BC), took advantage of the circumstances of the king and left him to the country to lead the war in the east until he declared himself king and called himself the title of King of Babylon, (5) as announced by Hyspaosinas-( 165-120 BC) the king of the neighboring Arabs as described by Pliny (6) his separation from the Parthian state, where he was recognized as king of Babylon in the year (128 BC), but King Mithradites II (123-88 BC) was able to expel him from Seleucia and Babylon and make his rule limited to Maysan-Mececne-Charax-only, and this included the return of Seleucid control over Mesopotamia during the reign of King Antiochus VII for a short period from (130-128 BC) quickly returned to Parthian sovereignty..The Parthians attempted to seize the Seleucid rule in Syria; However, they failed in this regard, especially after it became in the hands of the Romans, and thus the confrontation between them became direct in Mesopotamia, where Emperor Trajan in the year (114 AD) launched a campaign against the Parthian state during the days of King Khosrow (110-129 AD), and he defeated them and penetrated their lands until he seized the coast of the Tigris.He reached the Arabian Gulf in the year (115 AD), and seized the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and almost eliminated the state but Khosrow managed to regroup his forces, and raided the Roman army; (1 (2 (5 So he expelled them from his country, but they returned again (164 AD) and won again and penetrated into Mesopotamia and besieged the capital Ctesiphon, and the war ended with the signing of a peace treaty between the two sides; Then the Romans returned also in the year (195 AD) and the Parthians were defeated, as the Romans entered the capital and plundered it, in addition to the internal conflicts that sometimes led to the death of the king until the unity of the state was disintegrated and collapsed at the hands of the Sassanids (226 AD) (1) .

Seleucid-Parthian Relations:
Arsak, with the support of his brother Tiridates (247-211 BC), took advantage of King Antiochus II's preoccupation with his many wars, to revolt against the Seleucid rule in Iranian lands, using the mistreatment of Androgoras -the Seleucid ruler of the eastern provinces -as a pretext to declare rebellion against the state (2) .
According to many historians, (3) Tiridadoptes I is considered as the second founder of the state.He took advantage of the turbulent situation that King Seleucus II was preoccupied (245-226 BC) by his wars with the Ptolemies, and he expanded the borders of his kingdom to Hyrcania (4) and Zdrakarta -Strabad -and called himself Shahanshah, taking from the city of Darium, Dara, which is near Abiord (5) as his capital, and it is natural for the Seleucids to reject this Parthian expansion, which is getting stronger; Which will make them between the jaws of pincers with the Ptolemies to the west and the Parthians to the east.
After Seleucus II managed to calm the situation with the Ptolemies, and made peace with his brother Antiochus -the falcon -he went to the territory of Parthia to restore Seleucid control over it, but the Parthian king Tiraditis I preferred to withdraw to the northern plains rather than confront the Seleucid king, who obtained the support and backing of the Greek ruler of Bactria Diodotus I (255-237 BC), who secured the Seleucid king's recognition of his independence, perhaps in return for the support he gave him; Which shows to what extent the position of the Seleucid state was shaken in front of its leaders, but this king died and his son, King Diodotus II, who allied with the Parthian king, took over after him, and he did not follow in his father's footsteps in cooperating with the Seleucids, but rather became an opponent to them (6) and what made the situation difficult for Seleucus II to exploit His brother Antiochus -the falcon -for his wars with the Parthians, so he used the Armenian king Arsamis to attack Mesopotamia, which prompted Seleucus to leave Parthia to confront his brother, and expelled him from northern Mesopotamia (7) He also faced the alliance of his brother with his aunt Stratoniki residing in Antioch, where they ignited a revolution in it, which prompted him to return to Antioch, where he killed his aunt after her escape to Seleucia -the Orontes and put down the revolution, and expelled his brother from Antioch.The Parthian king took advantage of this revolution and returned to the territory of Parthia and annexed the territory of Hyrcania to his possessions, and the areas extending to the western sides became subordinate to him, and even he moved his capital to the city of Hecatompylos, 1 and these two revolutions led to hindering him from completing his eastern campaigns, and even reinforced the secession of those states.After these wars, the Parthian kingdom extended its borders from the southern Caspian Sea to the far east of Iran.Antiochus the falcon was killed by the Gauls; While Seleucus II followed him in a military confrontation with the Parthians, and during his reign, the borders of the Seleucid kingdom were limited to Syria and Mesopotamia, and only some nearby Persian states (2) and after the death of Tiraditis, he was succeeded by his son Ardwan I (211-191 BC), who followed his father's approach in expanding his possessions, so he seized Media (3) but he was unable to keep it after the Seleucid throne was assumed by King Antiochus III, whose reign witnessed the first revolution against the Seleucid rule in the Arabian Gulf region, which represents part of the eastern states and an important link to communicate with them.
The situation of the state at this time was turbulent, as the eastern states separated from it, and the Seleucid influence in Syria was weak, and its conditions were turbulent compared to the Ptolemaic state, which had been stable since the end of the third Syrian war (246-241 BC).After killing of Seleucus III in Asia Minor, the commander Epigenes was able to return the Seleucid army to Syria via the Taurus; While Achaius ran the affairs of the kingdom, refusing to offer the murderer Nicanor by appointing him king of the state as an alternative to the murdered king, and remained loyal to Antiochus III and in gratitude for his favor, he appointed him as his deputy and gave him full powers in Asia Minor, then he worked on assigning the state of Media to the commander Molon, and the state of Persia to Alexander -the brother of Molon -(4) and these were the ones who led two major revolutions against him later.

A-Molon Revolution-(222-220 BC)
Antiochus faced the sudden revolt of Molon in the Arabian Gulf (222 BC) (5) after the latter succeeded in declaring himself as the king over the territory of Apolloniates -located on the eastern side of the Tigris River, followed by seizing the Seleucid camp in Ctesiphon-and he also managed to control the Seleucia-Tigris year (221 BC)., then the subjugation of Babylon, the Arabian Gulf, and the besieging of Susa (1) Antiochus sent the commander Xenoetas at the head of a new force with all the powers granted to him, and made all the governors of the eastern states under his command, to put an end to this revolt.At the city of Seleucia, the Tigris, he met with Molon, who lured him and crossed the river, then turned on him and finished the army and seized the city.The news of Molon's victory reached Antiochus III, while he was in his war to liberate the interior of Syria from the Ptolemies, then he cut off his campaign against Ptolemy and decided to return to Antioch.The matter of moving against Molon was not resolved because of the strong disagreements between his senior men, especially the minister Hermias and the commander Epigenes, whose death, on charges of treason, caused by a slander from Hermias, a revolt of the soldiers against the public domain (220 BC) (2) .At the end of the year (221 BC) the Seleucid army headed to Mesopotamia across the Euphrates, then continued its way to the city of Lipa -at Nineveh -and on the advice of the commander Zeuxis -crossed the Tigris, where the inhabitants of the north-eastern Tigris were loyal to the Seleucids , which led to cutting off the supply lines of Molon in Media, and the army crossed the Tigris in three stages until it reached Parabotamia, which Molon had imposed his influence on, and was able to break the siege on the city of Dura supporting the Seleucids, and when Molon discovered the ability of the Seleucid army to Cut off his supplies in Media, and the emergence of turmoil in his army, which formed most of the Greeks, and he realized that many of the cities that were subjected to him were compelled, faster to cross the Tigris, where the two armies met, and the assumption of leadership by Antiochus had its effect in achieving victory, and eliminating the revolt of Molon, who decided to commit suicide with his brother, and some of his supporters, while his brother Niolaus fled to Media, and killed all the family members so that they would not be captured (3) while Antiochus pardoned the rest of his followers, thus ending this revolution (4) which was to make the Seleucids loses their influence in Mesopotamia and the Arabian Gulf.
After his victory over Moulon, he awarded the ruler of Sousse, for standing up to Moulon, by appointing him governor of the state of Media (5) , and appointing Tychon -secretary of the army, and handing over the leadership of the Eritrean sea satrap (6) , where the states of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Gulf were reorganized, and the consequent establishment of building of an integrated fleet, his main goal was to monitor the Arabian Gulf to finish off any possible revolution that might threaten the Seleucid existence, in addition to his desire to benefit from the experiences of Taykhon in building a large fleet that would remain in the Gulf to control it in front of the Parthians, and to supervise maritime trade, especially with India.He also got rid of the minister Hermias, and punished the opponents of the Seleucid rule in the east who were loyal to Molon in the neighboring regions, so he crossed the Zagros mountains heading to Azerbaijan, whose ruler was Artabazanewho was independent of the Seleucid rule, he cooperated with Moulon, which threatened the Seleucid presence in the eastern and northern eastern states due to the location of his mandate, and was able to force him to accept his conditions, he then went to eliminate the revolt of his cousin Achaeus, who left for the other Seleucid capital Antioch, threatening the Seleucid throne (1) .
After Antiochus managed to eliminate the revolt of Achaius, he decided to recover the eastern states and the cities of Mesopotamia from the Parthians; And even to restore the prestige of the state after the major defeat in Rafah, and he also sought to restore its influence in those states, where his campaigns lasted approximately eight years (212-204 BC), which began in the year (212 BC) by heading to Armenia, whose king had been independent from Seleuqi since the year (230 BC) and refrained from paying the tribute imposed on his country, hoping to benefit from the conflict between Antiochus III on a side, and Ptolemy and Attalus, king of Bergamo on the other side, but the elimination of the Achaean revolution, the armistice with Ptolemy IV, and the treaty with Attalus destroyed his hopes in this regard.Therefore, when he heard of the progress of Antiochus, he hastened to open the gates of his capital, Arsamosta, and honored the king with the late tribute of about (300) talents and a gift of a thousand heads of horses and the same amount of mules.Antiochus accepted gifts and to weaken his opponent, he divided Armenia into two single states, one to the east of the Euphrates, which was known as Great Parmenia, and the other to the west, which was known as Minor Parmenia.In order to support this agreement, he was offered to marry his sister Antiochias (2) after which Antiochus returned to Antioch in preparation for his campaign to the east in the year (210 BC), where he crossed the Euphrates and reached Media (209 BC), and he struck a coin in his name in Ecbatana, and seized the treasures of one of its temples.Media was an important source for obtaining the horses needed for the Seleucid army (3) , then he went to the Parthian capital, Hekatumbilus (4) , and the Parthian king, who took advantage of the conditions of the Seleucid state and expanded the borders of his kingdom at their expense, was unable to withstand the Seleucid king, or confront him in his capital Hecatomblus; So he tried to lure him to an area free of water, and he deliberately filled the wells on his way, but Antiochus continued to advance and seize the capital, and forced King Ardwan to flee to the mountains of Hyrcania -where he fortified himself, and Antiochus landed in the Parthian capital, then chased after Ardoan, forcing him to surrender, and ceding the lands he had taken from the Seleucids, and contentment only with the states of Parthia and Hyrcania, provided that the annual tribute to the state was paid, and then he concluded a friendship treaty with him in the year (208 BC) (1) .After the murder of Antiochus III, his son, known as Seleucus IV (187-175 BC), took over the rule.He was keen to preserve the unity of the state in the wake of the wars fought by his predecessor and the revolutions that broke out against it, and the harsh defeat of the state in the front of the Romans in Magnesia, and what it led to The Treaty of Apamea (2) of exorbitant costs that prevented him from carrying out military campaigns that drain the rest of the state's resources; Therefore, he worked to reorganize it after losing the rich lands north of the Taurus Mountains, and focused his efforts on developing roads and trade corridors in Mesopotamia, and supporting ports in the Arabian Gulf in order to enhance commercial communication with the eastern states that were still affiliated with the Seleucids, and with India as well, in addition to strengthen his trade relations with the Nabataeans, who controlled the transit routes from southern and northwestern Arabia Peninsula to southern Syria (3) .
Antiochus IV (175-163 BC) took power, and he is one of three brothers who have the right to the Seleucid throne (4) The Seleucid coins carried their two images together until the year (169 BC), and this was what provoked the resentment of his brother Demetrius (5) and deepened the sharpness of the differences between the heirs of the Seleucid throne.
King Antiochus IV worked hard to strengthen communications between the various components of his kingdom by improving urban life throughout the kingdom, and spreading aspects of Greek civilization among his subjects.He was very interested in Babylon, where he established the Greek theater, and built buildings for the Olympic Games there until he was described as the founder of Babylon and the savior of Asia (6) The capital, Antioch, reached the highest level until it became comparable to the most prestigious cities in ancient times, as the interest in the capital was part of his plans to advance and strengthen the Seleucid Empire, and he tried to paint it with the Roman color because of his admiration for Rome, and his attempt to win their amiability and friendship, and focused his attention to the worship of the ruler over the rest of his ancestors.He was not the first Seleucid king, a slave as a god, as the founder Seleucus I and his son Antiochus I preceded him (7) .His goal was to unite the peoples of his empire by creating political, religious and cultural ties between the sects of the communities of those cities.
Antiochus focused his efforts on securing trade throughout the empire by securing the eastern trade routes that passed through the lands that the Parthians laid their hands on them in the eastern states that separated after the defeat of the Seleucids before the Romans.The Arab Gulf region also gained his attention, and among his works there was the rebuilding of the commercial city of Charax and his name was given to it.He also paid special attention to the Incense Road, as he wanted to obtain the goods of India and the Arab countries without an intermediary and deprive them of their access to the Ptolemaic lands, and the arrival of Egyptian goods with these caravans, where they succeeded his plans to enrich the capital, Antioch, and flood it with eastern goods, and despite that, the state's resources were depleted (1) by having to pay its obligations under the treaty of Apamea with the Romans, which greatly affected the ability of the state to maintain a strong presence in the eastern provinces; So the rulers of those states in Parthia, Bactria and Armenia became independent, as they stopped sending the money that was paid to the treasury of the empire, and they were not satisfied with that, but even refused to recognize the Seleucid authority, as they seemed to strengthen their authority by adding new lands to their possessions, and so he himself went out to the eastern states to restore the Seleucid influence on it, but he died in the year ( 163 (2) So he proceeded to calm the situation in the western parts of the country in order to devote himself to his war in the eastern states.
After the end of the grand ceremonies in his burial -a city near Antiochin the year (167 BC) (3) Antiochus in the year (166 BC) headed his eastern campaign first to Armenia, whose king was subjected to Seleucid sovereignty again, as he forced him to pay tribute to the state treasury, and then continued his march To Media, which was still affiliated with the Seleucid rule, where he changed the name of the city of Ecbatana to the name of Epiphania (4) in the context of his keenness to spread the manifestations of Greek civilization in those parts, and to change a number of the names of Mesopotamia cities to Antioch and Seleucia in order to revive the names of his dynasty, but he died in Media (163 BC) after he failed to acquire the treasures of the temple in Elam, the same temple in which his father Antiochus III was killed during the looting process, and his death came to stop his project to restore the influence of the state in the eastern states, especially that Bactria and Media, which are still Seleucids, and through them it is possible to encompass the Parthians, but this did not happen, but rather they took over the state itself, and he had entrusted the soldiers (1) .The angry people attacked the garrisons of King Antiochus VII in Media with the support of the Parthian king, who collided with Antiochus in Ecbatana and was able to defeat him, as he fled the battle before his death; When the Parthian king tempted one of the soldiers, he poisoned him, in another narration, the king preferred death to a dead person in battle than defeat.Whatever the case, the king was killed, his army dispersed and most of them were captured, including his niece Demetrius II, whom some sources mentioned that the Parthian king Farhad married to her (2) , and he was keen to treat the members of the Seleucid family with respect, as well as the king's body, but he did not waive the punishment of the cities that declared their loyalty to the Seleucids in the eastern states, and thus the path became open for the Parthian forces to occupy Babylon, and perhaps even advance towards Syria, and since then, the Seleucids did not dare to restore the eastern states that separated from them permanently (3) and Antiochus VII was the last Seleucid king who tried to restore those states to Seleucid sovereignty.
King Farhad faced the aggression of the Scythian tribes after his victory over Antiochus VII; He broke his promise with them, after he asked for their support during his war with him, and after his victory, he repudiated his promises, and he tried to get them out of his lands, but those tribes attacked the Parthian areas such as the city of Zarnak -which was later known as the country of Saka -and it seems that their attacks were so severe that the king was killed in one of the confrontations with them in the year (125 BC) (4) His son, King Farhad II, tried to seize Syria, but his wars with the Scythians hindered him from that, and his successor, Artaban11-was also unable to wrest Syria from the Seleucids, who had weakened to a large extent and divided their state there, because of his preoccupation with the conflict with the Scythians, specifically The Yue-Tchi tribe, which emerged from the deserts overlooking the Caspian Sea towards its lands, He was also killed in a confrontation with them in the year (124 BC) (5) .

Antiochus XIII, Philip II, and the Fall of the State (64 BC):
After the withdrawal of Tigran, Antiochus XIII (69-65 BC) declared himself king of Syria, where he bore the title of Asian -Asiatikos -and was a refugee in Rome during the rule of Tigran to Syria, where he was supported by Rome and welcomed by the people of Antioch, and his rule began with war with the Arab leader Azizo -but he received a defeat at his hand in the year (65 BC), which weakened his position , which aroused against him the inhabitants of Antioch; But he managed to suppress the revolution, which prompted the revolutionaries to join another claimant to the Seleucid throne known as Philip II, who had the support of the leader Azizo against Antiochus XIII, his former opponent, which prompted the latter to search for an ally and found him in the person of the Arab leader

Conclusion
The policy pursued by the kings of the Seleucid Empire, and since the days of the founder Seleucus I, contributed to sowing the seeds of separation and disintegration in the states and regions affiliated with them, as their empire extended from Egypt in the west to the borders of India in the east, and from the Arabian Gulf to the Black Sea and included interior of Syria,Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and India-Before ceding the Indian states-Iran, a large part of Asia Minor, and due to this Big Space, it was divided into two main sections: a -The eastern section or the eastern states, with its capital the Seleucia Tigris, b -the western section with its capital Antioch, in addition to the state of Asia Minor and its capital Sardis Which lost influence in it first.The Seleucids were keen to control many of the regions despite their distance in the hope of obtaining the resources that their state needed on one side, and in light of the competition with many regional and international powers, especially the Ptolemies, the first competitor, where the Seleucids directed their efforts in this framework, forgetting the danger that exists in the eastern regions which their policy towards it differed by granting it the right to self-administration, which led to its independence from them nonetheless, and the Seleucids' quest to impose Greek culture on regions, which are proud of their local identity contributed to the occurrence of that independence and then separation, and the emergence of Rome on the scene of international politics and its expansion in the East to harm the status and influence of the Seleucid state in a number of regions, especially in Asia Minor, as it made strong allies for it, such as the kingdoms of Bergamo and Pontus, in addition to the island of Rhodes, and even the country of Greece.These were one of the main reasons for the loss of the Seleucids to the Battle of Magnesia, and its Treaty of Apamea, which overthrew the state's economy, prestige and political position, especially that Asia Minor had its geographical and political connection with Armenia, which in turn is linked with the regions of Parthia and Bactria, the two regions that separated from the state, and weakened the Seleucid grip on the Gulf and India.The disputes over the throne, which started early, were a result of the separation of the state's territories, and the presence of more than one Seleucid king at the same time, as happened in the years (96-83 BC), was a major factor in its disintegration and then its fall in the east first and then in its western part.
History of Persia: vol 1 \p286 .(5(-Arrian\ VII,22,5 (6 -( Beven, The House of Seleucus: vol 1\ p38.(7 -( Diod\ XIX, 62-9-68-3. mentioned by Isaor Al-Kharaxi(1)  and Mesopotamia was divided into three satrapies ( 2 ) or large regions: a -Mesopotamia: It includes the northern part of Mesopotamia b -Satrap -Babylonia: It includes the central basin of the lands of the island located between the Tigris and the Euphrates c -Satrap -Paropotamia: It includes the Shatt al-Euphrates region and the north of the Arabian Gulf and was part of Babylon and after the Molon revolution, it was separated to become an administratively independent state.
House: vol 1 \305-30.(2(-Bevan, The House: vol 1 \ ‫؛103-‬ A ustain, The Helenistic World \ 247-248 A. 3 BC)previously mentioned -The Parthians remained under the Seleucid rule until the reign of King Phraybt Ibn Ardwan (191-174 BC), who took advantage of the defeat of Antiochus III, in front of the Romans in Magnesia, who declared his independence from the Seleucids, and his son Farhad I-Pharates1-(174-171 BC) From consolidating the pillars of his state and expanding it, he annexed Tabaristan.The Parthian expansion was completed when King Antiochus IV was busy with his wars with the Ptolemies -the Sixth Syrian War -and the disagreement with the Romans as well, and the Jews in Palestine; (1 -( Bevan,The House: vol 2\ 244.(2 -( Delevoise, Political History \ 35 ‫؛‬Cary, History of Greek \ 78.3 the two leaders agreed on what among them to get rid of the two Seleucid kings, and to divide the kingdom between them, so Antiochus was arrested and captured; and Philip fled before his capture by the hand of Aziz to the city of Antioch after learning of the plan, and the authority of the Seleucid king no longer exceeded Antioch only, and in the year (67 BC) the Roman envoy Marcus Rex visited Antioch and built a building as symbol of Roman influence, and in order to avoid Roman power, Sampsograss released Antiochus, where he returned to ascend the throne of the state in Antioch that Philip II left because of the revolt of the people against him, and that was in the year (65 BC) after the famous Roman commander Pompey arrived in Syria in the wake of his victory over the Kingdom of Pontus, where the fate of the Seleucid state was decided, refusing the request of Antiochus to return him to the throne of the kingdom, and thus the Seleucid state ended at the hands of the Romans, and as for Antiochus, he was killed at the hands of Sampsygramus in the year (56 BC) and Philip II was invited to ascend the Seleucid throne, but Rome refused and thus ended the Seleucid presence in history(1)  .